Sending Workers and Students from China to France and from Turkey to Germany during the First World War
Abstract views: 106 / PDF downloads: 78
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11095077Keywords:
China, Ottoman, student worker, abroadAbstract
Sending students to foreign countries and bringing experts and teachers from there were among the basic education movements of all developing countries in the 19th century. Students were generally sent to Europe and America and later to Japan; Experts and teachers were also brought from there. Two similar events were observed during the First World War in the history of China and the Ottoman Empire, which shared similar fates in the early 20th century. China sent many students, workers and student workers, especially to France. The Ottoman Empire also sent many students and workers-students to its war partner, Germany. The endings of these projects, which were completed when the war ended, were similar to each other. Thousands of workers and students returned disappointed, without completing their education in a foreign country, without earning money or learning anything. Both countries eventually resulted in participation in far-left political movements and the establishment of communist parties that later developed in their home countries. As for the differences of the movement, most of the students sent from Turkey to Germany were the children of the princes, the civilian and military officials who were already at high levels in the country, and the rich. On the contrary, those sent from China to France were poor children. Those who were sent as workers were sent from China as full workers under contract, while orphanage children were generally sent from Turkey as apprentices. Both projects had to be terminated with the end of the First World War before reaching their goals.
References
Aktaş, Hayati, 2019, Birinci Dünya Savaşı'nda Türkiye'de Görev Yapan Alman Subaylarının Faaliyetlerinin Bir Değerlendirmesi ve Türk Askerinin Konumu, History Studies, 11:2, 469-482. https://www.historystudies.net/dergi/birinci-dunya-savasinda-turkiyede-gorev-yapan-alman-subaylarinin-faaliyetlerinin-bir-degerlendirmesi-ve-turk-askerinin-konumu20190566fac37.pdf
Ayhan, İsmail, 2021, Eğitim Amacıyla Yurt Dışına Gönderilen Öğrenciler (1908-1922): Prosopografik Bir Çalışma Örneği, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Doktora tezi. https://www.academia.edu/82408499/Eğitim_Amacıyla_Yurt_Dışına_Gönderilen_Öğrenciler_1908_1922_Prosopografik_Bir_Çalışma_Örneği?uc-g-sw=87555566
Bailey, Paul John, 1982, Popular Education in China 1904-1919: New Ideas and Developments, The University of British Columbia, Doktora tezi. Pdf https://open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0095331?o=0.
Bailey, Paul, 1988, The Chinese Work-Study Movement in France, China Quarterly, 115, 441–461. https://www.jstor.org/stable/654865
Bailey, Paul, 1990, The Sino-French Connection: The Chinese Worker-Student Movement in France, 1902-1928, İçinde: David S. G. Goodman (ed), China and the West: Ideas and Activists, Manchester: Manchester University Press, p. 72-102. https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=BrHnAAAAIAAJ
Böttcher, Julika, 2021, Die Türkei als Argument in der pädagogischen Presse des Wilhelminischen Kaiserreichs, İçinde: Lohmann, Ingrid & Böttcher, Julika (Hrsg.), Türken- und Türkeibilder im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Pädagogik, Bildungspolitik, Kulturtransfer. Bad Heilbrunn: Verlag Julius Klinkhardt. S.73-93. DOI: 10.25656/01:21932; https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2021/21932/pdf/Boettcher_2021_Die_Tuerkei_als_Argument.pdf
Böttcher, Julika, 2023, Der deutsch-türkische Bildungsraum im Wilhelminischen Kaiserreich. Akteure, Netzwerke, Diskurse, Bad Heilbrunn: Verlag Julius Klinkhardt. https://www.klinkhardt.de/newsite/media/20230207_Boettcher_J_deutsch-tuerkische_Bildungsraum.pdf
Böttcher, Julika; Kesper-Biermann, Sylvia, 2023, Deutsch-türkischer Bildungsraum um 1918 - Akteure, Visionen und Transformationen, Bad Heilbrunn: Verlag Julius Klinkhardt. https://www.klinkhardt.de/newsite/media/20230207_Boettcher_J_deutsch-tuerkische_Bildungsraum.pdf
Bailey, Paul J. 2011, ‘An army of workers’: Chinese indentured labour in First World War France, İçinde: Santanu Das (ed), Race, Empire and First World War Writing, Cambridge University Press, s.35-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511973659.002
Barman, Geneviève & Dulioust, Nicole, 1987, Un Groupe Oublié : Les Étudiantes ouvrières Chinoises En France, Études Chinoises. 6:2, 9-45. https://www.persee.fr/doc/etchi_0755-5857_1987_num_6_2_1067
Barman, Geneviève & Dulioust, Nicole, 1988, Les années françaises de Deng Xiaoping, Vingtième Siècle, Revue d'histoire, 20, 17-34. https://www.persee.fr/doc/xxs_0294-1759_1988_num_20_1_2793
Baş, Yasin, 2008, Islam in Deutschland – Deutscher Islam?: türkisch-islamische Organisationen in Deutschland in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag
Çelik, Özcan, 2015, Islamischer Religionsunterricht (IRU) in Deutschland: Erwartungen der Muslime - Konzepte der Kooperation zwischen den Glaubensgemeinschaften und dem Staat, Inaugural-Dissertation Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität. https://d-nb.info/1142240770/34
Démurger, Sylvie; Fournier, Martin & Au-Yeung, Annie, 2012, Assistance et éducation des travailleurs chinois pendant la Grande Guerre - Le rôle du Mouvement Travail-Etudes, İçinde: Li Ma (ed), Les travailleurs chinois dans la Premiére Guerre Mondiale, CNRS Editions, s.323-343. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/52317565.pdf
Dirlik, Arif, 1985, The New Culture Movement Revisited: Anarchism and the Idea of Social Revolution in New Culture Thinking, Modern China, 11:3, 251-300.
Dölen, Emre, 2008, II. Meşrutiyet Döneminde Darülfünun, Osmanlı Bilimi Araştırmaları, X-1, 1-46. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/13211
Eberhard, Otto, 1918, Der türkische Nationalismus und der deutsche Unterricht an der türkischen Schulen, Neue Bahnen, Illustrierte Monatsschrift für Erziehung und Unterrich, 29:9, 260-268.
Erdoğan, Aynur, 2013, Yurt Dışı Eğitim ve Türk Modernleşmesi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Doktora Tezi. http://nek.istanbul.edu.tr:4444/ekos/TEZ/50820.pdf
Ergün, Mustafa, 1992, Die Deutsch-Türkischen Erziehungsbeziehungen während des Ersten Weltkrieges, OTAM, Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, 3:3, 193-208. https://doi.org/10.1501/OTAM_0000000120
Fuhrmann, Malte, 2009, Anatolia as a site of German colonial desire and national re-awakenings. New Perspectives on Turkey, 41, 117–150. doi:10.1017/s0896634600005392
Gencer, Mustafa, 2001, Bildungspolitik, Modernisierung und kulturelle Interaktion: deutsch-türkische Beziehungen (1908-1918), Münster: LIT Verlag. https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=oFHI4CT-fwEC
Guercissimo, Carine, 2003, The New Chinese Migrants in France, International Migration, 41:3, 135-154. https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17507190.pdf
Guoqi, Xu, 2005, China and the Great War: China's Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization, New York: Cambridge University Press
Hamdullah Suphi, 1928, Dağ Yolu I, İstanbul: Türk Ocağı Hars Heyeti Neşriyatı. https://ia800408.us.archive.org/4/items/dagyolu0001ta/dagyolu0001ta.pdf
Mischa Honeck, James Marten (eds), 2019, War and Childhood in the Era of the Two World Wars, Cambridge UK: Cambrige University Press. https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=H4aEDwAAQBAJ
Horne, John, 1985, Immigrant workers in France during World War I, French Historical Studies, 14:1, 57-88. doi:10.2307/286414
King, Diana, 2017, Translating Revolution in Twentieth-Century China and France, Columbia University, Doktora tezi. https://academiccommons.columbia,edu/doi/10.7916/D8G167KH/download
Kriegel, Annie, 1974, Communismes au Miroir Français; temps, cultures et sociétés en France devant le communisme, Paris: Gallimard
Leidinger, Paul, 2014, Die Deutsch-Türkische Gesellschaft Münster e.V. von 1916 und die DTG Bonn. Aspekte der Förderung deutsch-türkischer Beziehungen seit einem Jahrhundert, İçinde: Dietrich Schlegel, Norbert Reitz (Hg.): 60 Jahre Deutsch-Türkische Gesellschaft Bonn. Bonn, S.17-34.
Leidinger, Paul, 2017, Aspekte deutsch-türkischer Beziehungen im Jahrhundert zwischen Erstem Weltkrieg und Gegenwart am Beispiel der Deutsch-Türkischen Gesellschaften Berlin (gegr. 1914), Münster (gegr. 1916) und Bonn (gegr. 1954). Exkurse: 1. Zur Armenierfrage 2. Zur deutsch-türkischen Rechtsannäherung im Ersten Weltkrieg, İçinde: Paul Leidinger, Ulrich Hillebrand (eds), Deutsch-Türkische Beziehungen im Jahrhundert zwischen Erstem Weltkrieg und Gegenwart: Grundlagen zu Geschichte und Verständnis beider Länder. 100 Jahre Deutsch-Türkische Gesellschaft, Münster: LIT Verlag Münster, s. 21-54. https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=eBspDwAAQBAJ
Levine, Marilyn A. 1993, The Found Generation: Chinese Communists in Europe during the Twenties, Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Ma, Li, 2009, La place de la religion dans l'éducation par le YMCA des travailleurs chinois de la Grande Guerre, Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains, 235, 101-115. https://www.cairn.info/revue-guerres-mondiales-et-conflits-contemporains-2009-3-page-101.htm
Maksudyan, Nazan, 2014, Refugee Ottoman Orphans in Germany during the First World War, Helmut Bley, Anorthe Kremers (eds.), The World During the First World War, Essen: Klartext Verlag, 2014, s. 151-166. https://www.academia.edu/8238431/Refugee_Ottoman_Orphans_in_Germany_during_the_First_World_War
Nazan Maksudyan, 2014a, Mavi Kep ve Pelerin: Cihan Harbi Yıllarında Almanya’da Osmanlı Yetimleri, Toplumsal Tarih, 243, 22-27. https://www.academia.edu/7775186/Mavi_Kep_ve_Pelerin_Cihan_Harbi_Y%C4%B1llar%C4%B1nda_Almanya_da_Osmanl%C4%B1_Yetimleri
Maksudyan, Nazan, 2016, A Triangle of Regrets: Training of Ottoman Children in Germany During the First World War, İçinde: Benjamin C. Fortna (ed), Childhood in the Late Ottoman Empire and After, Leiden: BRILL 141-172. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w8h1jx.11; https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/3e08d4b8-243c-4013-b8d2-03b952fb30dc/613397.pdf
Maksudyan, Nazan, 2019, Boys Without a Country: Ottoman Orphan Apprentices in Germany During World War I, Mischa Honeck & James Marten (eds), War and Childhood in the Era of the Two World Wars, Cambridge University Press s.206-228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108671965.012
Mangold-Will, Sabine, 2013, Begrenzte Freundschaft: Deutschland und die Türkei 1918-1933, Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag TTK
Meşeci Giorgetti, Filiz, 2021, Reformpädagogik in türkischen Elementarschulen. Eine Untersuchung zum türkisch-deutschen Austausch über Erziehung und Unterricht in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts, Ingrid Lohmann, Julika Böttcher (Hrsg.), Türken- und Türkeibilder im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Pädagogik, Bildungspolitik, Kulturtransfer, Bad Heilbrunn: Verlag Julius Klinkhardt s.167-194. https://d-nb.info/1231527188/34
Ortaylı, İlber, 1983, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Alman Nüfuzu, İstanbul: Kaynak yay.
Önsoy, Rıfat, 2004, Türkiye'deki Almanya 1914-1918: Almanya'nın Türkiye'deki kültürel etkinliği ve Robert Bosch, Ankara: Atlas Yay.
Pantsov, Alexander & Levine, Steven I. 2015, Deng Xiaoping: A Revolutionary Life, Oxford University Press, https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=w__VBgAAQBAJ
Rankin, Mary Backus, 1971, Early Chinese Revolutionaries: Radical Intellectuals in Shanghai and Chekiang, 1902-1911, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
Ronen, Yotam, 1923, When intellectuals educate: history and geography in the educational project for Chinese workers in France during World War One, 1916–1918, Paedagogica Historica, 1-18, https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2023.2231363
Ryll, Georg, 1928, Türkische Schüler auf deutschen Schulen, İçinde: Franz Schmidt & Otto Boelitz (Hrsg): Aus deutscher Bildungsarbeit im Auslande; Erlebnisse und Erfahrungen in Selbstzeugnissen aus aller Welt, Langensalza: Julius Beltz, s.114-117.
Stovall, Tyler, 1993, Colour-blind France? colonial workers during the first world war. Race & Class, 35:2, 35–55. doi:10.1177/030639689303500203
Summerskill, Michael, 1982, China on the Western Front: Britain's Chinese Work Force in the First World War, London: M. Summerskill
Schmidt, Franz, 1928, Vier Jahre als türkischer Schulreformer, İçinde: Franz Schmidt & Otto Boelitz (Hrsg): Aus deutscher Bildungsarbeit im Auslande; Erlebnisse und Erfahrungen in Selbstzeugnissen aus aller Welt, Langensalza: Julius Beltz, s.34-73
Şimşek, Muttalip, 2016, Osmanlı Devleti'nde Alman Yetimhaneleri (1860-1921), History Studies, 8:3, 151-173. https://www.academia.edu/29285681/Osmanl%C4%B1_Devletinde_Alman_Yetimhaneleri_1860_1921_
Toprak, Zafer, 1982, Türkiye'de Milli İktisat, Ankara: Tarih Vakfı Yay.
Ülger, S. Eriş, 1992, Atatürk und die Türkei in der deutschen Presse (1910-1944), Hückelhoven: Schulbuchverlag Anadolu
Vogel, Ezra F. 2011, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, Harvard University Press
Zarrow, Peter, 1990, Anarchism and Chinese Political Culture, New York: Columbia University Press.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Toplum, Eğitim ve Kültür Araştırmaları Dergisi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.